Sociological Theories of Leisure: Marx and Weber

Sociological Theories of Leisure: Marx and Weber Leisure is an area of sociological study that has, according to many sociologists including Chris Rojek[1] been neglected. The literature, certainly in the countries of Britain and Australia, has been dominated by views and theories that fit into a Marxist framework. ‘Leisure’ is juxtaposed against what is deemed its opposite, ‘work.’ In this essay I shall attempt to elucidate some of that Marxist framework and then criticise what can be viewed as its limitations thus, hopefully, highlighted and understanding some of the implications necessary for a further and deeper understanding of the sociology of leisure. Marx’s most basic premise, that man in capitalist society is alienated from his own labour, is also, unsurprisingly, the theoretical underpinning for Marxist notions of leisure. The change from older forms of economic markets to capitalist industrialisation forced a schism in the work/leisure relationship. â€Å"The identification of leisure as the sphere in which needs are satisfied and pleasure found simultaneously makes work less susceptible to criticism as unsatisfactory and more salient as that which has to be tolerated to ‘earn’ the freedom of leisure. Instrumentalism about work is built into this enforced separation: ‘leisure’ is the prize to be won.†[2] This demarcation is seen as the principle victory, in a stream of relatively uncontested battles, of capitalism in regards to leisure. The alienation of labour is made more tolerable by leisure activities and pursuits. The idea that one worked to live at the weekend, or outside of work, became prevalent. Work became a means to an end. The sphere of leisure, once created, offered the ruling classes the opportunity to restrict and control workers lives further, in insidious ways, permeating what was supposed to be ‘free’ time. â€Å"If the working class wants alcohol and music, it shall have them but only to be consumed under certain conditions.†[3] Under the guise of caring for workers rights and needs, and by setting up institutions of leisure, the dominant ruling classes could ensure that time away from work was spent in activities deemed appropriate. The point of this control was, of course, to ensure the productivity of workers and thus perpetuate the capitalist market. A hung over worker was of little use. â€Å"The establishment of leisure as consumption†¦has also been of considerable significance.†[4] This was capitalism’s second great victory in regards to leisure. The capitalist process, at its most fundamental, is all about consumption. By turning leisure into a commodity, to be bought and sold as well as used, revenue could be exploited. The irony and hypocrisy of the sphere of leisure, supposedly free of capitalist ideology, feeding that ideology with new avenues of revenue, production and reproduction, is shown by Clarke and Critcher. The freedom of leisure is a fallacy. â€Å"The much vaunted democracy of the market-place rests on the rather less democratic foundations of the profoundly unequal distribution of wealth and income.†[5] Instead of resistance to the fact that choice is limited, nay controlled, by the market, we, the consumer, value what choices we do have all the more. Choice in leisure is curtailed by social division and unequal distribution.â€Å"Those with relatively more control over work tend to have more control over their leisure; class does not end at the factory gate†¦gender even less so.†[6] Clarke and Critcher indicate a direct link between the alienation of work, to an alienation of leisure, precisely because they conceptualise leisure as being a by product of what we term as work. Leisure is defined by work, caused by work and needed because of work in a capitalist industrial society. Resistance to leisure models are, according to Clarke and Critcher, ultimately futile. The market can not completely control how leisure products are used, the young especially tend to use them in ways never envisioned. This would be seen as a site of resistance except, â€Å"Such strategies may modify but cannot challenge the market/consumer model. Before we can modify the meaning and use of any commodity, we must first enter the market as consumers to acquire it.†[7] â€Å"In a manner sometimes reminiscent of the early Marx, Simmel argues that modern production is not the site of creativity, of individuality, of pleasure.†[8] Marx stated that workers were alienated from their species being, their creativity, individuality and ultimately their pleasure. Simmel here echoes those sentiments. He also concurs that leisure is an escape from such alienation. â€Å"In this context then, the history of forms of leisure is the history of labour The exhaustion of our mental and physical energies in work lead us to require only one thing of our leisure; ‘we must be made comfortable’; ‘we only wish to be amused.’†[9] These notions are very similar to those of Marxist and neo-Marxist theorists such as Clarke and Critcher. Leisure is a reward for time spent working and the real purpose of leisure is to repair and relax the worker ready to once more be a useful member of the industrial complex. â€Å"The sphere of non-work, ostensibly that of leisure, can also be filled out by consumption and by circulation in search of what is new. Where a mass of consumers has been created, commodities can be sold for their price rather than their quality.†[10] It is to be noted that in sociology of the Marxist tradition, and here in Simmel’s own words, what constitutes leisure in a capitalist society for the workers is judged morally bankrupt and alienating. Quantity over quality, mere amusement over the satisfaction of any deeper needs. Many theorists question this view. Wrestling would certainly be treated as such mere amusement in a Marxist or Simmel tradition, yet for Barthes[11], such ‘low’ culture reproduces the ‘species being’ that they see as lacking from capitalist leisure. The Marxist tradition makes those judgements with very little empirical evidence. As Rojek states, â€Å"So far leisure and other studies have provided little sense of what people actually do or feel in pubs, gardens, kitchens, on pitches or package tours.†[12] The assumption of what people experience during leisure is dangerous. [13] In Freudian psychology, â€Å"An irresistible verbal transition†¦effortlessly replaces the†¦term ‘leisure,’ with a substitute, ‘pleasure.’†[14] In essence our existence, at the polymorphous perversity stage, begins as fun. The processes of society, the rules of the ego, attempt to cage that fun. â€Å"The world of fun is repressed.†[15] Freud noted the classic bourgeois ego, perhaps best represented by Veblen’s â€Å"Leisure class.†[16] For Freud, it was, â€Å" Just this ‘objectivity’ which justified the utilitarian tradition in psychology, and, viewing the individual as a consumer rather than a producer, regarded pleasure as the consequence of possessing valued objects.†[17] Freud depicted the Bourgeois ego as deriving its pleasure from owning commodities. This pleasure was leisure and inexorably, in both implicit and explicit ways, the subordinate classes were compelled to adopt this view because, as Rojek points out, â€Å"the ideas of the bourgeois class are the ruling ideas in society.†[18] Interestingly, Freudian psychology breaks with Marxist tradition. The pleasure of fun is not to be found in commodities. Commodities are the only form of leisure since, under capitalist ideology all leisure is a commodity. So, reacting to the psychological need to escape from the alienation of work, people seek excitement from their commodities instead. â€Å"Consumption has become exciting†¦Possession, of course, remains its prerequisite, but necessity is held in abeyance.†[19] The act of shopping in itself has become the excitement, the commodity itself holds less importance. Evidence of this comes from, â€Å"The comparative longevity of modern goods (Which are) overwhelmed by the wish for continual newness.†[20] Freud, rather pessimistically, saw no real way out of this ideological trap, hence his claim, â€Å"For psychoanalysis the modest therapeutic aim of ‘transforming neurotic misery into common unhappiness.’†[21] â€Å"Kelly argues that, ‘If something has to be done then it isn’t leisure’ and that ‘leisure is generally understood as chosen activity that is not work.’†[22] Sociology is replete with such ethereal and vague definitions of just what exactly leisure is. Clarke and Critcher state that their work, â€Å"Does not attempt to lay to rest all those complex definitional questions about what is or is not leisure. We do not believe that these questions can be solved by ever more elaborate analytical juggling.†[23] H F Moorhouse[24] takes issue with this. He raises the very salient point that one could consider it blithely ignorant to conduct a whole study without first defining what it is one is researching. Clarke and Critcher rely on a ‘self evident’ truth of what leisure is. ‘Self evident’ truths are, quite often, less than self evident. They rely on common sense notions, but sense in this case is not necessarily c ommon. â€Å"It operates with the simplistic and stereotyped view of what most ‘work’ is like, seeing it as impoverished, routinised, deskilled etc†¦..What is a very complicated issue is oversimplified.†[25] For Moorhouse, their treatment of work is crude and their definition of leisure spurious. They refuse â€Å"To allow that paid labour can be, for most, a source of satisfaction, purpose, creativity, qualitative experience, and so on.†[26] This can only be seen as a weakness. Classical assumptions of the nature of work and leisure may no longer be sufficient. Clarke and Critcher state that they are writing during a time (1985) of transition to ‘post-industrial’ society. If one take this claim seriously then it has important implications. â€Å"The introduction of flexi-time and the development of human relations techniques in management have made the workplace less oppressive and monotonous for many workers†¦Moreover, technical progress enables paid employment to be conducted from the home.†[27] Technology, in particular that most wide of world webs, has magnified the possibilities of working from home and blurred the lines of what constitutes work and leisure still further. The dualistic and simplistic account, as found in Clarke and Critcher and other works in the Marxist tradition, may no longer be completely adequate to explain the sociology of leisure. Their account seems isolated in a very specific moment, a moment of change . Older accounts, Veblen’s, Marx’s, Simmel’s, may have been entirely accurate at the time they were published, but that time has long since past. Other considerations may need to be taken into account. â€Å"My submission is that the distinctions between work and leisure, public and private life, duty and excitement, have blurred.†[28] If one takes the work of Rojek seriously, what implications for the tired and simplistic definitions of what constitutes work and leisure? Freud defines leisure as pleasure as fun. If the boundaries of what constitutes leisure and work are indeed eroding could it mean that leisure, pleasure and fun can be found in work? Or work in fun? A cogent example would be of a party that one feels obliged to attend. You do not like the food, you hate the music, you’re surrounded by people you despise and you would give anything to be anywhere else. Yet this is your leisure time? The sociology of leisure needs to address these concerns. â€Å"Relationships and structures of leisure help mitigate human problems, foster cohesion in communities, alleviate personal suffering, maintain economic stability, and encourage political activity.†[29] Some sociologists see leisure as being a site for developing essential social networks, places that maintain and improve cohesion and interaction. If one considers Simmel’s conception that sociability is the, â€Å"Pure form of interacting independence of individuals,’†[30] then one might conclude that the development of leisure networks are a ‘morally’ good occurrence that let actors enjoy true or ‘pure’ leisure, pleasure and fun. Perhaps for the good of the sociology of leisure, â€Å"There is a need to shift attention away from the characteristics of individuals or groups as the unit of analysis, and focus on the characteristics of social relationships between people.†[31] â€Å"Social structure may also be manipulated by the intentional activities of actors.†[32] The Marxist based argument is one sided. The bourgeois are the active oppressors, the working class the submissive victims and there is no room for any real dialogue between worker’s desire and capitalist ideology. [33] Also it assumes that capitalist ideology is uniform and coherent. The ideological structure is rarely that simple. Feminist theorists such as Wearing[34] raise the issues of the problem of women’s experiences of leisure. Though raised in Clarke and Crichter’s work, their account does not, perhaps, delve deeply enough into the feminist sociological perspective. The structural and pervasive economic ideology of Marxism is, in many ways, present in feminist accounts, however particular attention should be paid to the fact that this ideology is exclusively the preserve of men, and is not exclusively economic. Theorists such as Butler[35] indicate the problem of explaining women’s position in society while being forced to use the only language available, the language of masculinity. Still further Collins critiques feminism as the preserve of white women only.[36] â€Å"If one ‘is’ a woman then that is surely not all that one is†¦gender intersects with racial, class, ethnic, sexual and regional discursively constituted identities.†[37] In conclusion and as stated above in the introduction to this essay, leisure is very often regarded as having been neglected in the arena of sociological study. Perhaps one of the reasons for this indifference has been the genuine problem of even defining exactly what leisure is. The Marxist tradition has held dominance in the field much since the time of Marx himself. Even those who I have used to criticise some of the Marxist perspectives themselves share many similar views[38]. This is because it is incredibly difficult to understand leisure without its ‘opposite.’ This study is really as much of a study of work as it is of leisure and this author actually can not find fault in that approach. What I do find fault with is the quite often simplistic dualism that is depicted between the two. As Rojek concludes, the edges between work and leisure are blurred and this is something that is important to the future study of leisure. Marxist ideas are frequently accused of being economicly deterministic. Whilst I personally find that accusation a tad harsh, many of the theories outlined above could be accused of considering the economic, the capitalist, a little too much in their theorisations. â€Å"Leisure†¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœIs action in structure†¦produced by action in the real world of roles and responsibilities as well as the division of race, class, age and gender.†[39] All of these particular characteristics must be considered in any study of leisure. Moorhouse suggests a methodology. â€Å"Weber used the concepts of status group and lifestyle to refer to specific patterns of consumption and culturally based attachments. †[40] What is certain is that by using such concepts, and still further, the sociology of leisure can only broaden its knowledge. Bibliography Roland Barthes Mythologies pub by J. Cape 1972 Roland Barthes Image, music, text pub by Fontana Press 1977 Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 The devil makes work: Leisure in capitalist Britain by J Clarke and C Critcher. Published by Macmillan 1985 Leisure in society, A network structural perspective by Patricia A Stokoswki. Published by Mansell 1994 Ways of Escape by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan Press 1993 Leisure and Feminist Theory by B Wearing. Published by Sage 1998 Gender trouble by Judith Butler. Published by Routledge 1999 Black feminist thought by P H Collins. Published by Routledge 1990 The theory of the leisure class by Thorstein Veblen. Published by The new American library 1959 Footnotes [1] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 Ways of Escape by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan Press 1993 [2] The devil makes work: Leisure in capitalist Britain by J Clarke and C Critcher. Published by Macmillan 1985 p94-95 [3] Ibid p95 [4] Ibid p95 [5] Ibid p96 [6] Ibid [7] Ibid p201 [8] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p78 [9] Ibid p83 [10] Ibid p78 [11] Roland Barthes Mythologies pub by J. Cape 1972 Roland Barthes Image, music, text pub by Fontana Press 1977 [12] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p31 [13] Though Rojek himself reaches many of the same himself conclusions regarding the banality of modern leisure, in particular package tours, travel and tourism. Ways of Escape by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan Press 1993 [14] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p53 [15] Ibid p64 [16] The theory of the leisure class by Thorstein Veblen. Published by The new American library 1959 The ruling Bourgeois idea of leisure, for Veblen, was conspicuous consumption, the ostentatious display of wealth through the purchase of commodities. [17] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p69 [18] Ibid p101 [19] Ibid p70 [20] Ibid p70 [21] Ibid p57 [22] Ibid p17 [23] The devil makes work: Leisure in capitalist Britain by J Clarke and C Critcher. Published by Macmillan 1985 pxiii [24] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 [25] Ibid p22 [26] Ibid p25 [27] Ibid p108 [28] Ibid p108 [29] Leisure in society, A network structural perspective by Patricia A Stokoswki. Published by Mansell 1994 p112 [30] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p87 [31] Leisure in society, A network structural perspective by Patricia A Stokoswki. Published by Mansell 1994 p38 [32] Ibid p112 [33] At least not in any meaningful way as we have seen in the above example, from Clarke and Critcher, that the very entry into the market process taints any action with is ideological stigma. [34] Leisure and Feminist Theory by B Wearing. Published by Sage 1998 [35] Gender trouble by Judith Butler. Published by Routledge 1999 [36] Black feminist thought by P H Collins. Published by Routledge 1990 [37] Gender trouble by Judith Butler. Published by Routledge 1999 p6 [38] Ways of Escape by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan Press 1993 [39] Leisure in society, A network structural perspective by Patricia A Stokoswki. Published by Mansell 1994 p37 [40] Leisure for leisure edited by Chris Rojek. Published by Macmillan press 1989 p31

Reduction of Natural Resources Essay -- Environment Developing Essays

Reduction of Natural Resources Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to make known the negative social implications of the â€Å"catching-up development myth† through globalization and to break down specific concepts of vertical and lateral oppression from the top natural resources consumers of oil in the world. This paper also demonstrates my interest in creating biological and economic equity in the world through breaking down these oppressive frameworks and hence, my interest in obtaining knowledge about alternative energy uses to be used as a tool to help liberate others in places of need. The â€Å"catching up development myth† as explained by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva in Ecofeminism, is the idea that underdeveloped countries (meaning, countries that do not equal or exceed the industrial capabilities of modernized counties like the U.S.), through modern technology, are given equal opportunity to become as economically progressive as other countries like the U.S. It is a false precept in many ways. The U.S. has become a model for industrial countries because it has exploited other underdeveloped countries in order to gain its economic power. If underdeveloped countries were to â€Å"catch-up† to where the U.S. is today, they would also need to find another country that they could exploit as much as the U.S. exploits them. When economic reasons are discussed as to the possibilities of unlimited growth in underdeveloped countries the externalization of cost is almost never factored in. The economic, social, and most importantly ecological costs of constant growth in industrialized countries have been and are shifted to the people of underdeveloped countries. Both economic and social costs can be seen in the Maquiladoras on the b... ... natural resources like oil. Understanding ones role in this conceptual framework is also essential in creating a paradigm shift toward ones own awareness and participation in consuming the world’s natural resources such as oil. Building solar houses, using alternative energy sources for transportation, self-sustainability through growing ones own food can all contribute to creating a paradigm shift towards a more Earth sustaining living environments. These are just a few of the things that both affluent and poor countries can do to help deconstruct the negative codependent relationships that currently exist between each other. Works Cited: Mies, Maria, Shiva Vandana. Ecofeminism, Fernwood Publishing Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1993, pp 60 and 302. Weisman, Alan. Gaviotas, A Village to Reinvent the World, Chelsea Green Publishing Co., Vermont, 1998, pp126-127.

Chisti Dargah Essay

In Ajmer city, there is a Dargah Shriff of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti which is indeed an ornament to this city. A holiest place where not only Muslims but other caste people also visit as it is a place of worship for them. Since Khwaja Saheb came to India, he enjoys great respect and devotion universally and known as a ‘Living Spirit† of Harmony and peace. He considered as a redeemer of human suffering and one of the greatest spirits. He has been a source of moral strength and enlightenment of spirituality. Both Hindu and Muslim are faithful and worshipers of Khwaja Saheb. Not only common man, even many mighty kings of Hindustan (India) have worshiped and submitted their self to this great saint. There are precious buildings and various rich charities dedicated to the Dargah of Khwaja Saheb. These are living memorials given by the people of India in the memory of Khwaja Saheb from 750 years. The Dargah is at extream north of Taragarh Hill and here it has the tomb of the great saint. The tomb is main attraction of the Dargah and considered as sanctum of the Dargah. There are amny other prominent attraction which also catches the eyes of visitors as soon as they visit the Dargah. There are two Buland Darwaza, which were built under the vision of Sultan of Malwa, Sultan Ghyasuddin Khilji. He ruled Malwa from 1469 to 1500 A.D. There is another Buland Darwaza(now uses as main entrance) in the north of the Dargah, it was built by H.E.H. Nisam Usman Ali Khan of Hyderabad Deccan in 1915 A.D. It was built at a cost of Rs. 55,857/-. On the top of this Buland Darwaza, there is the main Naqqar Khana (drum house) containing two pairs of huge naqqars (beating drums). These were gifted by Emperor Akbar after his successful victory in a campaign of Bengal. These naqqars (beating drums) are sounded to the accompaniment of music played on Nafeeries and Shahnias. These are sounded only at certain fixed hours of every day and night of the year only by musicians permanent employees of the Dargah. There are many other attractive buildings, tombs, courtyards and Daalaans in the Dargah, Some of which are excellent examples of the Moghul architecture and were erected during the Moghul period. Akbar (the first Moghul Emperor who visited Dargah) visited the Dargah on foot when Ajmer came under his possession. There is a Akbari Masjid in the Dargah built in 1571 A.d. by  Akbar which is a spacious mosque (140Ãâ€"140) feet. Later It was repaired in 1901 A.D. by Nawab Ghafoor Ali of Danapur. As per given on the Website of Dargah Shrine Dargah Shrief, a place where wishes and desires come true. Devotees from all over the world visit this Dargah to be blessed by Khawaja Baba and to fulfill their desires. More often than not their wishes do come true and the wish fulfillment is usually followed by devotees offering flowers, gilaf (velvet cloth), ittar (non-alcoholic perfume) and sandal wood powder. Besides these offerings they also recite Quran, Nafal Namaz, Milad and Aayat-e-Karima and Khatam Khawajgan. Services provided by Dargah Shrine: * Sufies, Dervash and Aulia Allah started the custom of arranging Langars (free distribution of food for all the makhlooks (mankind) and this is now considered as one of the biggest charity one can offer. We arrange Langar, which includes one deg of biryani that can feed 70 people. Note: This should not be included as part of Zakat money. * We make it possible for you to participate in all the activities of Dargah Sharief. The activities include milad, khatam of Quran, special monthly prayers for members etc. This entails becoming a member of our silsila. * Make transport and lodging arrangement, package trips and also offer services of ourguesthouse for free stay. * Make arrangement for donating a room for people visiting the Dargah Sharief We believe Khawaja Baba’s blessings can cure any disease, business or personal problems. If you have any problem please tell us we will pray to lmighty Allah and he will listen out prayer with the blessing of Khawaja Gharib Nawaz R.A. THE MISSION OF KHAWAJA SAHIB It is a well-known historical fact that in spreading the ethical and spiritual values of Islam, major and effective contributions have been made by the walis of Allah (saints). It was their humanistic disposition and pity, which won over the hearts of lakhs of people. They made a direct contact with the masses, served and loved them, lived with them in the realisation of Eternal Truth. Haji Syed Mohammed Sayeed Chishty * The proof of this is more than evident from the history of growth of Islam in India. Although Islam had penetrated in this subcontinent in the first century of Hijra, but the noble task of inspiring the people to its tenets and values in India was accomplished by Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty (R.A.) popularly known as Khwaja Sahib and Khwaja Gharib Nawaz. He did it all through his great moral power, glorious and appealing character, with love and dedication to mankind, without any worldly resources of wealth, power, force and material means. * Khwaja Sahib was a scholar of great repute. He interpreted the true Islamic message of love for mankind and through that, the love for the Almighty creator. He preached the Quranic philosophy of the unity of religion and worked out its potentialities for  the whole humanity. He was the greatest mystic of his time. He laid the foundation of the liberal Chishtia order of sufis in India, and inspired millions of souls to be his followers and thus served the masses of the Indian Sub-continent. Why Ajmer Was Chosen Why Ajmer was only selected to be poineer of Hazrat Khawaja Muinuddin Chishti’s mission in India? This is a very general question which may be asked by some critical readers. A microscopic study of the history of India before Khawaja Saheb’s arrival, and of the period of his stay in Ajmer will answer this question successfully. Dargah shrine have already thrown sufficient light on this point, Shrine trace a brief history of Ajmer and the Khawaja Saheb’s Dargah which attracts millions of people every year to seek spiritual blessings of the great saint. Geographically, Ajmer is situated in the heart of Rajasthan, at one time the citadel of India kingdom, and thus it suited the grand mission of Khawaja Saheb best. Politically, Ajmer the seat of a most powerful kingdom of the last Rajput Emperor of India, Raja Prithviraj Chauhan (1179-1192 A.D.) whose whole life was â€Å"one of unbroken chain of chivalrous deeds and glorious exploits which have won for him eternal fame and a name that will last as long as chivalry itself.† Prithviraj was the son of Someshwara (1170-1179 A.D.) who was the 29th descendant in the lineage of King Vasudeva who flourished as far back as 551 A.D. Vasudeva has descended from Chahuan (the founder of the Rajput clan of Chauhans) whose date is untraceable in the description of Ajmer. As given in Sarga IX of the famous documentary â€Å"Prithviraj Vijaya†, runs as below:- The city was so densely populated and there were so many gardens, tanks and wells that not more than one-tenth of the earth was visible to sun, and water in the wells was only two cubits from the ground surface. Karpurdevi (mother of Prithviraj) under whose regency he was brought up also founded a town†. Describing Ajmer in his â€Å"Picturesque India† (p.77) Mr. Caine, says:- â€Å"It is an ancient, beautiful city full of interest, both historical and architectural; its gay busy bazars and its old houses with carved fronts, some of which are among the finest in India, giving added attractions to its superb situation. A well-built stone wall with give gateways surrounds the city†. Source: – http://www.dargahajmer.com/a_about.htm

I Am A Senior Accounting Major - 988 Words

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A Critical Study Of Successful Factors In Chinese Banking Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4239 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? In this project, I attend to select Bank of China (BOCHK) for studying. This company has the unique advantages of RMB market in Hong Kong. We can know the methods to make as much as profits in RMB market via studying the RMB-related banking business of Bank of China in Hong Kong. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "A Critical Study Of Successful Factors In Chinese Banking Finance Essay" essay for you Create order In addition, Bank of China maintained their market leadership in the RMB-related banking business in Hong Kong. During the year, the Groups net interest income increased by 3.9% to HK$20,157 million as the Groups average interest-earning assets grew by 7.3% to HK$1,006,440 million. This growth was achieved by the expansion of lending business and the increase in average deposits from customers, banks and financial institutions. (BOCHK 2008) In 2008, the Groups substantial growth of RMB deposits was 58.5%, accounted for the largest market share. In the RMB credit card business, the company is also amongst the top of Hong Kong that card number and card household spending volume increased 24.6% and 49.8% respectively. More withdrawals of BOCHK were extended to Hong Kong yuan railway stations along the automatic teller machines in oreder to serve the customers better. During the year, the company also acts as the three major banks in the Mainland to issue renminbi bonds in Hong Kong lead manager, book-keeping line and distribution lines. Also, three banks issued bonds a total of up to 90 billion yuan. In addition, BOCHK have good communication and cooperation with other banks in China for preparing to provide customers with cross-border wealth management services in the Mainland. The first half of 2009 is expected to be in the designated branches of Bank of China launched the mainland. Until the end of 2008, the Groups wealth management over a number of customers was increased by 21.5%. The BOCHK through new business opportunities, such as the Beijing Olympics, launched a series of new cards to expand related businesses through new business opportunities, such as the Beijing Olympics .In addition, the company introduced the CUP BOC Credit Card with China Union Pay in December 2008. As Hong Kongs economy is export-oriented, nature of Hong Kongs economic outlook depends critically on the development of the global economy in 2009. Because a high degree of uncertain ty is still hovering in the global financial markets, the business environment is expected to be very difficult in the coming year or even longer. The Central Peoples Government agrees to expand the scope of RMB business in Hong Kong is another major step in the reform and liberalisation of RMB. The expansion of RMB business in a steady and orderly manner is conducive to further strengthening the economic integration between Hong Kong and the Mainland of China, and providing greater convenience to the people of both places amid the ever increasing cross-border flows. The closer financial cooperation between Hong Kong and the Mainland will also help enhance Hong Kongs status as an international financial center. (BOCHK 2005) We have seen that GDP growth was shrinking, unemployment rate was rising and the negative wealth effects were appearing. Nevertheless, Hong Kong is still in a relatively advantageous position. This is because the company received the full support of the Mainland, while the Mainland in terms of both the economic and financial strength compared with other regions is relatively stable. The central government published in Renminbi 4-trillion stimulus packages in November 2008 and the subsequent launch of a number of policies and measures to stimulate the economy, so the Hong Kong economy and its financial services sector will bring new opportunities. The Group is a leading listed commercial banking group in Hong Kong. With over 280 branches and 470 ATMs and other delivery channels in Hong Kong, the Group offers a comprehensive range of financial products and services to retail and corporate customers. BOCHK is one of the three note issuing banks in Hong Kong. In addition, the Group now has 19 branches and sub-branches in the Mainland of China to provide cross-border banking services to customers in Hong Kong and the Mainland. BOCHK is appointed by the Peoples Bank of China as the Clearing Bank for Renminbi (RMB) business in Hong Kong. (BOCHK 2009) Therefore, Bank of China can get the benefits in RMB market through different RMB services and products in Hong Kong. Ensuring the RMB business in the market leadership, Bank of China hopes the upcoming yuan trade settlement pilot plans to open one of the main windows of opportunity which allows the Guangdong Province, the Yangtze River Delta between Hong Kong to use the yuan as a trade settlement currency. The purpose is to expand the Groups RMB banking business. In addition BOCHK developed the RMB remittance and foreign exchange business actively and improved its comprehensive renminbi services to maintain its leading position.Consequently, this project can help Bank of China to maintain the leading position in the RMB-related banking business market in Hong Kong and increase the income from RMB-related banking business of Bank of China. Research Objectives The critical and main factors for Bank of China to grasp the opportunity of the RMB trade settlement pilot scheme in Hong Kong. According to different RMB-related banking business, these factors can clearly identify what actions should be taken by Bank of China to boost the incomes and profits from the RMB market in Hong Kong. For maintain the market leadership in Hong Kongs existing RMB banking business, Bank of China should develop and provide diversify RMB-related services and products base on the following research objectives. Measure preceived image of various HK banks Evaluate the popularity of RMB as transaction Obtain peoples perception of the prospect of RMB Measure the acceptance level of RMB credit card Calculate the ammount the behavior of RMB cardholder spending Identify which is the ideal location of ATM for RMB cash withdrawal Evaluate which is the best method to promote RMB bonds Evaluate which new product and service are valuable to customer s Critical review of relevant literature This includes raising the exchange limit between RMB and Hong Kong dollar per person per transaction, lifting the credit limit of RMB cards issued by banks in Hong Kong and relaxing the RMB remittance limit imposed on Hong Kong residents (Xinhuanet 2005) I think that Hong Kong as an international financial center, the central government attaches great importance to the role. Under the first phase of the arrangement, four pairs of banks in Hong Kong Renminbi (RMB) business has opened. RMB deposits increased from a stable, smooth transactions and a stable exchange rate has to prove that the yuan business is very successful. In the SAR Governments proposal based on the central government has approved in principle to expand renminbi business in Hong Kong on the range. This includes increasing the renminbi yuan and the Hong Kong dollar per person per transaction limit, in the abolition of the credit limit of RMB bank cards issued to strengthen to the RMB remittance limit imposed by Hong Kong residents to relax and expand Hong Kongs RMB settlement to designated merchants departments, and allows you to specify an invoice Hong Kong to open RMB cash deposits accounts and allow the RMB deposits one-way exchange of foreign currency into Hong Kong dollars. The Individual Visit Scheme for Chinese mainland residents to visit Hong Kong has gone a long way towards boosting the local retail and job markets. Last year Hong Kong received a total of 4.2 million Chinese mainland visitors under the Scheme, bringing additional tourism receipts of around 6.5 billion HK dollars. (Xinhua News Agency 2005) Moreover, the central government also agreed in principle to operate in Hong Kong of a new RMB business for consumption in Guangdong Province to Hong Kong residents check issued by a limited number of yuan. Central government will soon implement the various arrangements and a formal announcement. I believe that these new measures will become an all-round development to promote Hong K ongs financial industry milestone. Fllowing approval from the State Council, the Peoples Bank of China (PBoC) has agreed to provide clearing arrangements for banks in Hong Kong to conduct personal renminbi (RMB) business on a trial basis. The scope of RMB business to be offered will be confined to transactions that facilitate personal spending but do not involve investment and other capital account transactions.The scope of RMB business to be offered on a trial basis includes the following four areas are Deposit-taking, Exchange, Remittances and Renminbi Cards. (Hong Kong Monetary Authority 2003) Moreover, this article analysis and express the Hong Kongs offshore RMB business. According to RMB business in Hong Kong banks on a trial basis, it is marking the development of the banking sector is taking an important step forward. It promotes and facilitates the economic integration between Mainland and Hong Kong for visiting and spending money. I believe that the Hong Kong banking se ctor will seize this opportunity and provide different RMB services to the public in the near future. The Peoples Bank of China (PBOC), Chinas central bank, has agreed to provide clearing arrangements for banks in Hong Kong to conduct personal renminbi (RMB) business on a trial basis. (Xinhua 2003) According to the base of RMB business in Hong Kong bank, this opened up a new channel for the flow of renminbi funds between the Mainland and Hong Kong base on the banking system. Not only Hong Kongs banking sector meets the needs of the market and the general public, but also it develops a new business in order to consolidate the advantages of Hong Kong banking sector and enhance the competitiveness of the banking sector. For the long-term development, this helps to maintain the Hong Kongs status as an international financial center of great significance. The HKMA will work with the Peoples Bank to assist in the early implementation of the Hong Kong banking sector and the introduction of renminbi business. Recently, the Peoples Bank of China and the Hong Kong Monetary Authority signed a Memorandum of Cooperation concerning the operation of personal Renminbi (RMB) business in Hong Kong. This marked a major progress in financial business under the CEPA framework. Fostering the development of RMB business in Hong Kong, the memo would lay the foundation for Hong Kong to become an offshore RMB centre, enhancing Hong Kongs role as an international financial centre. (Wing Fu, Hui 2004) This article mentions the offshore markets and offshore financial centers. Financial services can be on land or at sea. Initially, the land in these two different is that those businesses issued within the countrys currency under the control of attention and containing the countrys judicial jurisdiction, but does not cover those offshore business jurisdiction. Then came off-shore bank in New York and Tokyo, but the gap narrowed only the applicability of the issue of the countrys juris diction. (International Bank in the two cities is allowed to conduct foreign currency business in their country of residence without being subject to the provisions of these countries, as long as the isolation of these offshore operations ashore.) Offshore financial business is originated in Europe. The term European currency includes all the usual off-shore money. Initially, it refers to the dollar in Europe, the European Japanese yen, British pound in Europe, Eurofranc, as well as major European currencies has been replaced in Europe, such as the German mark, French franc and Dutch guilder. As the offshore business is not in the currency within the territory of the country, nor was put under the jurisdiction of the State, its operation does not require state approval. But there are some prerequisites for the currency to become an international currency must be used for international pricing, billing, purchase and payment. That is why the U.S. dollar has remained so far a maj or offshore currency. At present, almost all countries there are an offshore business and offshore markets. Strictly speaking, all transactions in foreign currency-denominated offshore business, is a kind of offshore markets. To become an offshore financial center, we need more criteria. Only those operators that there is a vast, but also provides a comprehensive range of services and high turnover, but also as a major offshore currencies intermediaries, it can be regarded as an offshore financial center. While the global in the past two or three decades, efforts to promote offshore business, and only a few places in line as an offshore financial center status. Among them, London, New York and Tokyo is the largest of the three, while the Luxembourg, Zurich, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Singapore, Sydney and Bahrain are secondary regional offshore financial center. This shows that to become an offshore financial center needs a number of pre-articles, including political and social stabil ity, economic freedom and free flow of information, rule of law and sound legal system, administrative efficiency, supply, infrastructure modernization and the relative a better location. For the offshore renminbi business in Hong Kong, although the memorandum of cooperation will promote the development of offshore renminbi business in Hong Kong, but it is not enough to make Hong Kong a complete offshore yuan market, they fear to become the yuan offshore centers. Hong Kong provides Mainland enterprises with an efficient access to international capital through its banking, equity and debt markets. Nevertheless, the cross-boundary capital flows have by no means been one-way. Hong Kongs banks have maintained a strong presence in the Mainland. (HKGOV. 2003) According to the Basic Law, the Hong Kong dollar legal tender in Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (implied RMB in Hong Kong is a foreign currency). The banks are allowed to run four aspects of RMB services namely deposit -taking, currency exchange, remittances and credit-card services. (China Daily 2003) These new arrangements for Hong Kong from the Mainland regulations control the free operation of the RMB business (mainly reflected by the banks to freely determined deposit rates and immunities of the minimum reserve requirements). This makes Hong Kong banks to conduct renminbi offshore business standard. In fact, the RMB business in Hong Kong has been operating there for a long time, but only in cash transactions. While the turnover is expected to quite large, it can only be regarded as non-recurring or gray market. However, the signing of a memorandum of cooperation will bring quality and quantity changes. The former refers to the regularization of the existing business, while the latter concerned about the introduction of a variety of services, including deposits, remittances, foreign exchange and credit cards. These changes prompted an offshore yuan market in Hong Kong. Expansion of renminbi deposits of great significance. All sectors of HongKong welcomed the announcement Tuesday by the Peoples Bank of China regarding the expansion of the scope of renminbi (RMB) business in Hong Kong. These measures will further facilitate cross-border spending by mainland and Hong Kong residents and promote economic integration between the two sides. The agreement of the State Council to expand RMB business in Hong Kong helps strengthen Hong Kongs role as an international financial center. (Xinhua 2005) In the past, the yuan is basically limited to payment or as a transaction medium. Retail spending in the Mainland demand or for commercial purposes has been held by residents of the major media yuan. With the introduction of deposit-taking business, the RMB will expand its functions, has become a store of assets, greatly stimulate the demand for money. At the higher interest rates and expectations of RMB appreciation, the renminbi deposits will be particularly attractive. Limit the exp ansion of the RMB exchange rate 20000 6000 yuan, will help to strengthen this effect. Remittance and credit card business also has considerable potential. So far, the money changers offer lower fees and charges underground money so that they can capture most of the business. Nevertheless, the introduction of renminbi deposits, allowing banks to directly debit customer deposits account for remittances, which will enhance the competitiveness of the banks. Banks will also benefit from increased credit / debit cards, credit limit, and a license Mainland visitors in Hong Kong, ATM withdrawals. Under the new arrangements, Hong Kong will establish a RMB clearing system. The expanded RMB clearing services will be launched in two stages. The first stage of service, to be introduced on 5 December 2005, includes the clearing services for the newly expanded scope of deposits, exchange, remittance and bank cards. The second stage, due to be launched on 6 March 2006, covers the clearing ser vices of RMB cheques, together with the introduction of the RSS. (BOCHK 2005/11) In the absence of freely convertible and the lack of overseas settlement facilities, the yuan has not yet become a real foreign currency. Now, Bank of China will be selected as the RMB clearing bank. The bank will be the Bank of China branch in Shenzhen to open a RMB settlement account, and other banks to participate in personal RMB business clearing and settlement services. Through the China National Foreign Exchange Trading Center and the provision of relevant information, it will also provide money transfer services, including remittance diversion, position covering, and the sale of yuan. All the measures marked the beginning of Hong Kong to become yuan offshore centers. Through the creation of the worlds first offshore renminbi settlement system, Hong Kong will get a better location as a basis for moving towards yuan offshore centers. However, Hong Kong an offshore yuan market, at present there i s no uniform standard, not to mention the renminbi offshore center. Relative to other currencies of the overseas operations, the RMB business in the portfolio on the client and there were essential differences. RMB business in Hong Kong is limited to individual customers, only deposits of Hong Kong residents (holders of Hong Kong Identity Card), does not include commercial entities and non-residents. Offshore business in other currencies is based on target companies and institutions, as well as non-residents as the main customers. This means that renminbi business in Hong Kong is the only retail scale. In Hong Kong is limited to the above four operations, but the overseas markets against other currencies can engage in a number of other private businesses, including loans, securities and derivatives. From the state governments control, Hong Kongs offshore yuan market is limited. Bank of China, Hong Kong must also obtain consent to conduct RMB business. The reason is not yet fully convertible yuan and the current arrangement is preferential treatment in Hong Kong. In fact, while Hong Kongs offshore yuan market, steady growth, but in the yuan to become fully convertible, Hong Kong is to become an offshore renminbi still a long way from the center. Hong Kong has great potential to become a renminbi offshore center, because Hong Kong has a bright future as the renminbi offshore center. Hong Kong is on the path to becoming a fully-fledged offshore centre for the yuan, with full convertibility to eventually follow. It would be good for Hong Kong if it could become an offshore yuan market. As the yuan is now being recognised in many countries, many foreign countries might wish to set up Hong Kong bank accounts for yuan transactions. Many could also see the benefits of setting up offices in Hong Kong as our legal and financial services can assist them doing business in China.The main immediate beneficiary of the agreement will be the bank selected to establish a yuan clearing centre, which will channel yuan from Hong Kong to China. This would allow an outlet for the massive amounts of mainland currency circulating in Hong Kong. (HKMA 2003) First, Yuan could become a major international currency, and thereby also become offshore transactions in major currencies. At present, the number of surrounding areas yuan in circulation has been increasing. Some commercial banks and the central banks use RMB as a reserve currency. In the 2002 World Cup in South Korea banks currency exchange, the yuan has been given to the U.S. dollar, Japanese yen and the euro the same position. The Bank of Korea further pointed out that the four major international currencies and the currency is the reserve currency. All aspects of development reflect the maturity of the renminbi as an international currency status. Frist, Chinas economy is expanding rapidly. In 2002, China has the worlds sixth largest GDP countries in the world and the economy of Southeast Asia has become an engine of growth. By 2010, gross domestic product is expected to more than double that of 2000 and advancing to the worlds first 3. To further advance to the second position is possible in 2015. Chinas growing economy will support the renminbi become an international currency. Second, RMB enjoy a higher yuan and improve its international reputation. The RMB exchange rate has remained stable, as a unified exchange rate system was developed in the 1990s. During the Asian financial crisis, the Chinese Government didnt choose to devaluate RMB in order to prevent the competitive devaluation. This year, China has not succumbed to the expected appreciation of RMB which further demonstrate their attention to the interests of all parties and stability of commitments. In addition, China has 3,000 billion in international reserves, which is the second time the worlds largest international reserves, to maintain exchange rate stability and improve the international credibility play a major role. Third, For the Chinas banking system still have a problem, the Administration proposed a comprehensive reform, including the injection of bad debt write-off, market, the introduction of foreign capital, in order to strengthen corporate governance, which is widely expected to take effect in the reform, the RMB will be fully convertible . Second, the overall international trade position of China is estimated to maintain balance or slight surplus. Also, this will help to develop Hong Kong as the largest offshore center for the renminbi.An international division of labor with China was produced by the economic forces of globalization, as the worlds major factory, a huge number of Chinese imports of raw materials and components and export finished products to the United States and European markets. This has led to Chinas trade deficit to surge in Asia, especially East Asia such as Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea and Japan. In the first 9 months of this year, Chinas trade deficit reached USD39.27 billion U.S. dollars in Asia, while the trade surplus with the United States and Europe, and USD9.67 to reach USD40.89 billion. In this mode, the large supply of an offshore yuan market will appear in East Asia. On trade in services, the mainland tourists going abroad has been more than 16 million U.S. dollars, double-digit growth, but also the main destination is East Asia. This is another yuan source of supply. Thus, many East Asian cities to conduct RMB business in Hong Kong will become the center of East Asia. Since the outbreak of the Asian financial crisis, Hong Kongs status as an international financial center has declined, which is reflected that the bank reduce the number of contraction of external assets and liabilities of banks, offshore lending business contraction, and refused to foreign exchange transactions. However, Hong Kong started offshore renminbi business in Hong Kong would mean the development of new business in another currency ear ly. Hong Kong can operate RMB products, and the yuan to become the worlds major offshore centers when the yuan to become fully convertible. By that time, the size of Hong Kongs offshore operations will be strengthened, and to enhance Hong Kong as an international financial center. Research Methods Research design descriptors Category Options The degree to which the research question has been crystallized Exploratory study Formal study The method of data collection Monitoring Communication Study The power of the researcher to produce effects in the variables under study Experimental Ex post facto The purpose of the study Reporting Descriptive Causal-Explanatory Causal-Predictive The time dimension Cross-sectional Longitudinal The topical scope-breadth and depth-of the study Case Statistical study The research environment Field setting Laboratory research Simulation The participants perceptional awareness of the research activity Actual routine Modified routine Data collection method Self-administered survey The research survey will be designed to collect the data for market in Hong Kong. This research survey is basically separated into five aspects of RMB-related banking business which includes the RMB deposits, RMB credit card, RMB c ash withdrawal service, RMB bonds and RMB product and service innovations base on the consumer behavior, demands and interest. Also, this research is implemented by Internet survey. Telephone Interview In additional, the same research survey will be implemented by telephone interview. The interviewee can give their ideas and suggest of RMB-related services and products of Bank of China via telephone interview. It can collect the useful ideas from target customers. Face to face interview The group interview will be hold to collect the direct opinions of RMB-related business. Bank of China can test the response of new RMB-related services and products from the focus group directly. It is very important part for Bank of China to adjust and refine the RMB-related services and products. Sampling Method The convenience sampling will be used in this research. It is because convenience is the non-profitability sampling which is lower cost, more feasibility, limited objecti ve, better time manner and no need to generalize. Furthermore, the efficient and useful RMB-related research should be calculated and collected by a huge quantity of interviewee because of each people almost use banking services in Hong Kong nowadays. Sample size In this research, about 180 interviewees will be contacted by self-administered survey, telephone Interview and face to face interview. Project Plan ID Task name Start Finish Jan 2010 Feb 2010 Mar 2010 Apr 2010 May 2010 Jun 2010 Jul 2010 1 Preparation of final research proposal 10/01/10 30/01/10 2 Brainstorming 20/01/10 15/02/10 3 Interview 15/02/10 15/03/10 4 Data collection 16/03/10 30/03/10 5 Data analysis 01/04/10 15/04/10 6 First draft of research report 16/04/10 01/05/10 7 Research report presentation 01/05/10 14/05/10 8 Second draft of research report 15/05/10 30/05/10 9 Final draft of research report 01/06/10 25/06/10 10 Submission of research project report 25/06/10 10/07/10

Dbms Comparison - 2517 Words

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A DBMS serves as an interface b etween data and its end user, making sure that data is consistently organized and remains easily accessible to users. DBMS’s are vital to several aspects of our technological worldRead MoreTradeoffs Between Relational and Object-Oriented Database Management Systems1149 Words   |  5 PagesDiscuss the tradeoffs between relational and object-oriented database management systems 1) Stating Position The object oriented DBMS is superior to the relational database on some specific counts, primarily because it can satisfy the complex demands of the market today better than the any other. Secondly while the relational data base stores data as tables, the object model stores data as objects and creates associations. This can create a multiple set of attributes for each object such that

Understanding Organisational Culture in My School

Question: Discuss about the Understanding Organisational Culture in My School. Answer: Introduction The following essay is going to examine the structure and practice of organisational culture in my school that is situated in Saudi Arabia. Being a teacher of a girls school in Saudi, one feels quite interested in talking about the organisational culture. However, before carrying on with the detailed analysis of the culture and behaviour of the stakeholders in my organisation, the concept of organisation needs to be succinctly cleared. Organisation is a joint venture of the individuals who work together and share their ideas together. Since the essay is set to deal with the schools, the idea of organisation ought to be shifted from a mere concept of business organisation to an institute where creativity and excellence is moulded regularly. Schools have their own culture essence and value; hence, it needs not to be compare to a business organisation. It is the amalgamation of teachers, students and non-teaching staff. They are highly associated with the daily work-share (Smyth and Dur yan 2016). An ideal organisational culture is witnessed when there is equal and sensible sharing of organisational values and importance among every working individual. The cultural aspect of a school has major two sections: the teachers and the students. There are other two sections as well who contribute to the formation of certain culture. They are the external stakeholders- the parents and government. Schools witness integrity among all their working members. This is perhaps the only organisation where both the service provider and the gainer of the service take equal part in maintaining organisational culture. Schools in Saudi Arabia are highly influenced by Islamic religious essence (Hassan, Fan and Johnstone 2014). Since, religion is one of the major integration in Arabian life style, the students and the teachers are no exception of it. The schools in Saudi follow both the traditional and modern curriculum. Science and religion are perfectly incorporated and amalgamated in the Arabian schools (Alqahtani et al. 2016) I was a teacher in girl schools in Saudi. The Total student strength of the school is.... There are ....teaching staff and ... non teaching staff working together adhering to the direction of the Principal. The advantage lies in the fact that the Principal and the Vice Principal form equal understanding with each other. Since all the teachers are professional educators, they are found to be working collectively through sharing ideas and goals. All of the teachers in our school share the equal responsibility, which is to educate and edify the students to the utmost level. Lifelong learning is promoted and modelled by the teachers, which is highly supported by our students. The school is not considered ones property. To us, the school is a place of holy gathering where the teachers and the students meet together and strive to learn collectively. Collective learning is practised through group activity and mind mapping. In every academic level, we strive to improvise our performance through innovative teaching skills and the students cordially welcome that. (Niblock 2015) Reference: Alqahtani, N., Kanasa, H., Garrick, B. and Grootenboer, P., 2016. Saudi Teachers Perceptions of the Qualities of Effective Teachers.Australian Journal of Sustainable Business and Society,2(1). Hassan, A., Fan, I.S. and Johnstone, A., 2014. Level of Awareness and Understanding of the Meaning of TQM in Girls Public Schools in Saudi Arabia. InEDULEARN14 Proceedings(pp. 7223-7232). IATED. Niblock, T. ed., 2015.State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia (RLE Saudi Arabia)(Vol. 6). Routledge. Smyth, H.J. and Duryan, M., 2016, May. The impact of organisational culture on megaproject learning. 4th International Mega-Projects Workshop.